环境专业科技英语阅读与写作(第二版)

1 Introduction of scientific research paper 1.1 What is science? The word “science” is from the Latin word “scientia”， which means “knowledge”. When we speak of science， we usually mean a way of understanding the world through thought and experiment or describe the efforts to understand how the universe works through scientific methods. Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge based on testable explanations and predictions about the universe. In ancient times， “science” referred to this body of knowledge itself. In classical antiquity， science was a type of knowledge that was closely linked to philosophy. In the early modern period， the word “science” and “philosophy of nature” were sometimes used interchangeably. Science was considered as a branch of philosophy until the 19th century. In modern usage， “science” is not only the knowledge itself， but also the process of pursuing knowledge. With the passage of time， the word “science” has become increasingly associated with the scientific method itself， as a way to study the natural world. Since the 19th century， the term scientist has been applied to those who sought the knowledge and understanding of nature. Generally， the word “science” means natural science. However， there are many recognized science fields: social science， applied science， formal science， and others. Modern science can be roughly divided into the natural sciences， which study the material world; social science， which studies human behavior and society; and formal science like mathematics and statistics. Formal science is often excluded， as these studies do not depend on empirical observations. From the descriptions above， it is obvious that “science” refers to knowledge that is reduced to an algorithmic system， not involving the need for indescribable skills， such as fine arts. To understand the world by describing and explaining natural phenomenon， which we call “science”， scientists make empirical observations， followed by a series of steps， to perform scientific research. Steps of the scientific method in general scientific research are as follows: Making general observations is the first step in the scientific method. From what is observed， you may gain some ideas and put forward questions from which you could make a prediction on what the outcome might be. Your prediction， however， may or may not be right. So you must test different alternatives to your idea so that your answer is not biased. However， often you cannot directly test an idea or a theory. For example， you cannot test the theory of evolution， because evolution is a theory that is intangible. So， the question derived from your idea needs to be turned into a hypothesis that can be tested. For example， we all know that artificial heating in a city， regenerators like buildings and roads， and the decrease of green space induce the urban heat island (UHI) effect. We can test the hypothesis that the UHI effect is affected by many factors such as underlying surface， air pollution， and human migration， through studies. If the hypothesis is supported by the result of the studies， the hypothesis can be used to support the original idea. Thus， if the study shows that different kinds of underlying surfaces result in different levels of UHI effect， we can consider the underlying surface as a factor of UHI effect. Without hypothesis testing， ideas about nature and technique (e.g. hemispherical dome cosmology) are mere observations or speculations that any person can make. As a scientist， you cannot make a conclusion or claim based on your intuition， unqualified speculation， or emotion. Using these to explain something is not very convincing， and consequently would not be scientific. Science therefore requires gathering evidence to explain natural phenomenon. 1.2 What is research? The word “research” derives from the Middle French “recherché”， which means “to go about seeking”. The term itself is derived from the Old French term “recerchier”， a compound word from “re-” + “cerchier”， or “searcher”， meaning “search”. Research has been defined in a variety of different ways. Shuttleworth and Wilson (2008) gave a broad definition of research: “In the broadest sense of the word， the definition of research includes any gathering of data， information and facts for the advancement of knowledge.” Creswell (2011) states that “Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue.” Research includes three steps: ① pose a question， ② collect data to answer the question， and ③ present an answer to the question. The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research in more detail as “a studious inquiry or examination; especially: investigation or experiment aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts， revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts， or practical