批判性思维:方法与应用:英文版

Preface xxii
Changes to the 13th Edition xxiii
Acknowledgments xxv

Chapter 1 Driving Blindfolded 1
Beliefs and Claims 4
Issues 7
Arguments 8
Cognitive Biases 15
Truth and Knowledge 21
What Critical Thinking Can and Can’t Do 22
A Word About the Exercises 22
Recap 22
Additional Exercises 24
Answers and Tips 33

Chapter 2 Two Kinds of Reasoning 35
Arguments: General Features 35
Two Kinds of Arguments 37
Beyond a Reasonable Doubt 40
Two Kinds of Deductive Arguments 40
Four Kinds of Inductive Arguments 41
Telling the Difference Between Deductive and Inductive Arguments 43
Deduction, Induction, and Unstated Premises 44
Balance of Considerations 46
Not Premises, Conclusions, or Arguments 47
Ethos, Pathos, and Logos 48
Techniques for Understanding Arguments 54
Evaluating Arguments 57
Recap 58
Additional Exercises 59
Answers and Tips 70

Chapter 3 Clear Thinking, Critical Thinking, and Clear Writing 73
Vagueness 74
Ambiguity 76
Generality 79
Defining Terms 84
Writing Argumentative Essays 87
Recap 92
Additional Exercises 92
Answers and Tips 101

Chapter 4 Credibility 103
The Believability of Claims 104
The Credibility of Sources 112
The News 118
Advertising 126
Recap 130
Additional Exercises 131
Answers and Tips 140

Chapter 5 Rhetoric, the Art of Persuasion 142
Rhetorical Force 143
Rhetorical Devices I 144
Rhetorical Devices II 147
Rhetorical Devices III 151
Rhetorical Devices IV 152
Proof Surrogates and Repetition 158
Persuasion Through Visual Imagery 161
The Extreme Rhetoric of Demagoguery 163
Recap 166
Additional Exercises 167
Answers and Tips 184

Chapter 6 Relevance (Red Herring) Fallacies 186
Argumentum Ad Hominem 187
Straw Man 189
False Dilemma (Ignoring Other Alternatives) 190
Misplacing the Burden of Proof 192
Begging the Question (Assuming What You Are Trying to Prove) 194
Appeal to Emotion 195
Irrelevant Conclusion 198
Recap 200
Exercises 201
Answers and Tips 207

Chapter 7 Induction Fallacies 208
Generalizations 208
Weak Analogy 213
Mistaken Appeal to Authority 214
Mistaken Appeal to Popularity (Mistaken Appeal to Common Belief) 215
Fallacies Related to Cause and Effect 217
Slippery Slope 224
Untestable Explanation 224
Line-Drawing Again 225
Recap 225
Exercises 226
Answers and Tips 234

Chapter 8 Formal Fallacies and Fallacies of Language 235
Three Formal Fallacies: Affirming the Consequent, Denying the Antecedent, and Undistributed Middle 235
The Fallacies of Equivocation and Amphiboly 239
The Fallacies of Composition and Division 241
Confusing Explanations with Excuses 242
Confusing Contraries and Contradictories 244
Consistency and Inconsistency 246
Miscalculating Probabilities 246
Recap 251
Additional Exercises 252
Answers and Tips 259

Chapter 9 Deductive Arguments I: Categorical Logic 260
Categorical Claims 262
Translation into Standard Form (Introduction) 264
The Square of Opposition 271
Three Categorical Relations 272
Categorical Syllogisms 281
Recap 294
Additional Exercises 294
Answers and Tips 304

Chapter 10 Deductive Arguments II: Truth-Functional Logic 309
Truth Tables and Logical Symbols 310
Symbolizing Compound Claims 316
Truth-Functional Argument Patterns (Brief Version) 323
Truth-Functional Arguments (Full Version) 330
Deductions 338
Recap 356
Additional Exercises 356
Answers and Tips 363

Chapter 11 Inductive Reasoning 368
Argument from Analogy 368
Generalizing from a Sample 377
Scientific Generalizing from a Sample 379
De-generalizing (Reverse Generalizing; the Statistical Syllogism) 381
Causal Statements and Their Support 388
Calculating Statistical Probabilities 407
Causation in the Law 412
Recap 413
Additional Exercises 414
Answers and Tips 421

Chapter 12 Moral, Legal, and Aesthetic Reasoning 425
Value Judgments 426
Major Perspectives in Moral Reasoning 432
Moral Deliberation 439
Legal Reasoning 444
Aesthetic Reasoning 448
Recap 454
Additional Exercises 455
Answers and Tips 458

Appendix: Selected Exercises from Previous Editions 460
Glossary 483
Index 492